Little research done to analyze fraternities at American colleges as rape-prone contexts. (Ehrhart and Sandler 1985)

Ehrhart and Sandler (1985) identify over 50 cases of gang rape on campus perpetuated by fraternity men. They identify conditions in fraternities that make gang rapes of women by fraternity men both feasible and probable. These conditions are:

1.) Excessive alcohol use.
2.) Isolation from external monitoring.
3.) Treatment of women as prey.
4.) Use of pornography.
5.) Approval of violence.
6.) Excessive concern with competition.

-All of the above as precipitating conditions to gang rape. (Also use of coercion and sexual coercion are normative.)

Martin and Hammer examine conditions and processes as well as the dynamics associated with the social construction of fraternity life.

- not all fraternities are bad, but rape is especially probable in fraternities because of the kind of organizations they are.

Methodology
-Conceptual framework developed from an alleged gang rape at Florida State University.
     (Gang rape occurred while victim was unconscious.) Fraternity members refused to cooperate
      with law enforcement officials.
- Inclusion of over 100 newspaper articles on FSU gang rape
- Open ended interviews with Greek and non-Greek students (N=20); university administrators
    (N=8, 5 men 3 women); alumni advisers to Greek organizations (N=6)
- Open ended interviews with judges, public and private defense attorneys, victim advocates, and state prosecutors.

Fraternities and the Social Construction of Men and Masculinity:
- masculinity-utmost concern
- Narrow conception of masculinity stressing competition, athleticism, dominance, winning,
    conflict, wealth, material possessions, willingness to drink alcohol, and sexual prowess vis-a-vis women.

Status and Norms of Pledge ship
Pledging Experience:
- Physical abuse
- Harsh discipline
- Demands to be subordinate
- Follow Orders
- Engage in demeaning routines and activities
- Boot camp mentality

Norms and Dynamics of Brotherhood
- Brother status-reflects the bonds developed among fraternity members and the obligations
    and expectations incumbent upon them (Big Brother)
- Collectivities of highly masculinized men
- Attitudinal qualities and behavioral norms that predispose them to sexual coercion of women

Practices of Brotherhood (leading to sexual coercion of women)
- Preoccupation with loyalty.
- Group protection and secrecy.
- Use of alcohol as a weapon.
- Involvement in violence and physical force.
- An emphasis on competition and superiority.

Fraternities' Commodification of Women:
- Women as Bait:
- Beautiful, sociable women.
- impression that fraternity can deliver this type of woman to its members.

Women as Servers:
- Little sister program
- Well-defined roles
- Pay dues to fraternity but not full-fledged members
- Physically attractive
- Good social skills
- Devote much time and energy to fraternity
- Fosters subordination and dependence in women
- Encourages sexual exploitation and belief that it is acceptable

Women as Sexual Prey:
- Access to women for sexual gratification
    (a benefit of fraternity membership)
- Sexual outcome planned in advance by getting women drunk and spending lots of money on them
- Sex always talked about among brothers

Conclusions:
- The organization and membership of fraternities contribute heavily to coercive and often violent sex.
- Fraternity houses are "private" dwellings
- Macho conception of masculinity
- Narrow, stereotyped conception of women and femininity
- Brotherhood norms "Sticking together"
- Male status elevated
- Female status devalued
- Leaders of gang rape or group rape try to show off to peers (latent homosexuality in leader- Blanchard study)
- Alcohol induced compliance
- Men wanting to "get laid" without a commitment
- Fraternity culture- embedded in sexist society, caught up in masculinist goals, practices, and values
- Fraternities' violation of women- including forcible rape- should come as no surprise, given the above.